A) INTRODUCTION.

B) TO THE COUNCILS.

C) CATHOLIC TEACHINGS AND CREEDS.

D) THREE WESTERN ECUMENICAL COUNCILS HAVE BEEN HELD SINCE THE REFORMATION.

 

 

A) INTRODUCTION

 

 

There have been Twenty-one (21) official Ecumenical Councils held.  They are listed and briefly described as follows, with the inclusion of some additional Synods and Councils that have historical importance.

 

 

B) TO THE COUNCILS

 

 

The First real and only accepted “Council at Jerusalem” (not counted in the 21 Councils) -- 48 A.D.

 

According to the Acts of the Apostles, the disciples of Jesus Christ called a Council at Jerusalem to discuss stresses between two parties.  One party, led by James (the “Lord’s brother”), an early leader in Jerusalem, stressed continuity between ancient Judaism and its Laws, and the community that had gathered around Christ.  The other, led by Paul the Apostle, stressed the mission of Christians to the whole inhabited world, with its preponderance of Gentiles (or non-Jews).  At the Council the latter group tended to prevail; with James coming forth as being the Church leader, siding with Paul.

 

 

First Council at Nicaea (#1) -- 325 A.D.

 

The First Council of Nicaea (began on either May 20 or June 19, 325 A.D., and met until about August 25, 325 A.D.), Being the first Ecumenical Council, devoted itself to the problem of the Trinity, in an attempt to settle the controversy raised by Arianism over the nature of the Trinity.  It was the decision of the Council, formalized in the “Nicene Creed,” that God the Father and God the Son were consubstantial and co-eternal, and that the Arian belief in a Christ created by, and thus inferior to the Father, was heretical.  Arius himself was excommunicated and banished.  The Council was also important for its disciplinary decisions concerning the status and jurisdiction of the clergy in the early Roman church, and for establishing the date on which Easter is celebrated.

 

Note:  The “Nicene Creed” is a “Symbol of Faith,” which is widely used in “Christian Liturgy.”  It is called “Nicene,” because it was originally adopted in the city of Nicaea (present day Iznik, Turkey) by the “First Council of Nicaea.”  In 381 A.D., it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople, and the amended form is referred to as the Nicene, or the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.  The Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian churches use this, “profession of faith” (which is what this is really about) with the verbs in the original plural form (i.e., “we believe”), whereas the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches convert those verbs to the singular form (i.e., “I believe”).  The Anglican and many Protestant denominations generally use the singular form, but they sometimes use the plural.

 

 

First Council at Constantinople (#2) -- May to July, 381 A.D.

 

Constantinople I was called primarily to confront Arianism, the heresy that had been subdued only temporarily by the First Council of Nicaea.  It reaffirmed the doctrines of the “Nicene Creed,” and to depose Maximus, the Arian patriarch of Constantinople.  They also condemned Apollinarianism, a position that denied the full humanity of Christ.  The Council defined the position of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity; it described the Holy Spirit as proceeding from God the Father, co-equal and consubstantial with Him.  It also confirmed the position of the patriarch of Constantinople as second in dignity only to the bishop of Rome (Of Course, later to become, “The Vicar Of Christ”).

 

 

The Council of Ephesus (#3) -- June 22 to July 17, 431 A.D.

 

The Council of Ephesus was significant for its dogmatic decrees on the position of the Virgin Mary in the celestial hierarchy and on the nature of the incarnation of Jesus Christ.  It was convened in order to respond to the teachings of Nestorius that Mary be considered only the “mother of Christ,” and not the “mother of God” (see Nestorianism).  After lengthy debates the Council reached an accord in which the appellation, “mother of God,” formally decreed by the Council, was accepted by all.  The Council also refined the dogma on the human and Divine aspects of Jesus, now declared to be of two separate natures though perfectly united in Christ.

 

The Robber Synod (not counted) -- 449 A.D.

 

In 449 A.D., another Council, known in history as the “Latrocinium,” or Robber Synod, met in Ephesus.  It approved the doctrines of Eutyches, which were subsequently condemned at the Council of Chalcedon.

 

 

The Council of Chalcedon (#4) -- October 8th, to November 1st, 451 A.D.

 

The Council of Chalcedon, defined how the Divine and the human elements related in Jesus (“un-confusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably”), used some terms that are unfamiliar to contemporary ears.  It also condemned the “Robber Synod.”

 

 

The Council of Orange (not counted) -- 529 A.D.

 

Augustine had insisted that humans require the help of God’s Grace to do well and that this Grace is a free gift, given by God, without regard to human merit.  Thus God alone determines who will receive the Grace that alone assures salvation.  In this sense God predestines some to salvation and some not.  The church generally upheld Augustine’s teaching (the free gift of Grace), but the further idea that some are predestined to condemnation was explicitly rejected at the “Council of Orange.”

 

 

The Second Council at Constantinople (#5) -- May 5th, to June 2nd, 553 A.D.

 

Constantinople II was convoked to condemn the Nestorian writings, called the “Three Chapters” (i.e., Christ only has a Divine nature).  Under the virtual tutelage of the emperor, the Council proscribed Nestorianism and reconfirmed the doctrine that Christ’s two natures, one human and one Divine, are perfectly united in one person.  Pope Vigilius at first defended the Three Chapters, but later accepted the Council’s ruling.

 

 

The Third Council of Toledo (not counted) -- 589 A.D.

 

This Council developed the additional phrase to the “Nicene Creed,” that resulted in the “Filioque Controversy” (which is:  “For some, the term implies a serious underestimation of the Father’s role in the Trinity; for others, denial of what it expresses implies a serious underestimation of the role of the Son in the Trinity”), and eventually caused the Great Schism that divided the then Roman Christianity into Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

 

 

The Third Council at Constantinople (#6) -- November 7th, 680 A.D. to September 16th, 681 A.D.

 

Constantinople III condemned Monothelitism and affirmed that Christ has two wills; one human and one Divine, but that these are without division or confusion.  In addition, it condemned an earlier pope, Honorius I, for supporting that heresy.  This Council is also called, the “Council of Trullanum.”

 

 

The “Robber” Council of Constantinople (Orthodox, therefore not counted) -- 754 A.D.

 

Records lost, most likely because it was not Roman Catholic inspired.

 

 

The Second Council of Nicaea (#7) -- 787 A.D.

 

This Council ruled on the use of saints’ images and icons in religious devotion, declaring that whereas the veneration of images was legitimate and the intercession of saints efficacious, the veneration of icons must be carefully distinguished from the worship due to God alone.

 

Note:  The above seven great Councils are regarded as Ecumenical by both the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches.  The Orthodox Church even identifies itself as the “Church of the Seven Councils.”  Thus, they even don’t acknowledge the “Robber” Council of Constantinople.

 

 

The Photius Council (not counted by either Catholic or Orthodox) -- 867 A.D.

 

In 867 A.D., Photius summoned a Council that deposed Pope Nicholas.  The conflict, purely administrative at the beginning, had acquired doctrinal undertones when Frankish missionaries in Bulgaria, acting as Pope Nicholas’emissaries, began to introduce an interpolated text of the “Nicene Creed.”  In the original text the Holy Spirit was said to have proceeded “from the Father,” whereas in Carolingian Europe (but not yet in Rome) the text had been revised to say, “from the Father and the Son” (Filioque).  This began the division that eventually split the Catholic and Orthodox churches apart, two hundred years later in the Great Schism.

 

 

The Fourth Council at Constantinople (#8) -- Oct. 5, 869 A.D. to Feb. 28, 870 A.D.

 

Constantinople IV made no new dogmatic decisions; instead, it greatly contributed to the growing split between the Eastern and Western churches.  The principal action was to depose Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople, for usurping his ecclesiastical position.  This Council was only first called Ecumenical about two hundred years afterwards.  Later, Photius was restored to his see, and he held another Council in 879-80 A.D.  That later Council, not that of 869 A.D., is considered Ecumenical by the Orthodox Church.  But of course, not by the Roman Catholic church.

 

 

The Photius Council (not counted by the Roman Catholic church, but #8 by Orthodox churches, thus the counts are all different for the Orthodox churches from now on), November, 879 A.D., to March 13th, 880 A.D.

 

In 879-80 A.D. a great Council, presided over by Photius, confirmed the original form of the “Nicene Creed,” and normal relations between Rome and Constantinople were restored.  The Orthodox Church called this the “Council of Union.”

 

 

The Council of Clermont (not counted) -- 1095 A.D.

 

It was used by Pope Urban II to preach for, and launch the First Crusade.

 

 

The First Lateran Council (#9) -- March 18th, to April 6th, 1123 A.D.

 

The First Lateran Council was called to ratify the Concordat of Worms (1122 A.D.), which formally ended the lengthy “Investiture Controversy.”

 

Note:  The “Investiture Controversy,” also known as the, “Lay Investiture Controversy,” was the most important conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe.  It began as a dispute in the 11th Century between the Roman Emperor, Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.  The question was, who would control the appointments of bishops (thus the word, “Investiture”).  The controversy led to nearly fifty years of civil war in Germany.  This war ended with the triumph of the great dukes and abbots, and the falling apart of the German empire in the end.

 

 

The Second Lateran Council (#10) -- April, 1139 A.D.

 

The Second Lateran Council was convoked to reaffirm the unity of the church after the schism (1130-38 A.D.) of the antipope Anacletus II (1138 A.D.).  It also condemned the teachings of Arnold of Brescia.

 

 

The Third Lateran Council (#11) -- March 5th, to the 19th, 1179 A.D.

 

The Third Lateran Council ended the schism (1159-77 A.D.) of the antipope Callistus III and his predecessors.  It also limited papal electors to members of the College of Cardinals.

 

 

The Fourth Lateran Council (#12) -- November 11th, to the 30th, 1215 A.D.

 

This Council sanctioned a definition of the Eucharist, in which the word, “transubstantiation” was used officially for the first time.  The Council also attempted to organize a new crusade to the Holy Land and to encourage crusading efforts against the Albigenses and Waldenses (a Christian sect that arose in France after 1170 A.D., keepers of the original writings of the Word of God).  Many precepts still binding on Roman Catholics, such as, the “Easter duty,” or obligation; “Annual Confession;” and “Holy Communion;” were adopted at this Council.

 

 

The First Council of Lyons (#13) -- June 28th, A.D. to July 17th, 1245 A.D.

 

Confirmed the deposition of the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II.

 

 

The Second Council of Lyons (#14) -- May 7th, A.D. to July 17th, 1274 A.D.

 

It worked to make sure that a new crusade was organized, and regulations regarding the papal election were approved.  An effort at reconciling the Catholic and Orthodox Churches failed.

 

 

The Council of Vienne (#15) -- October 16th, 1311 A.D. to May 6th, 1312 A.D.

 

Abolished the Order of Knights Templars, and passed some Church reforms.

 

 

The Council in the Orthodox Church (not counted) -- 1341 A.D.

 

Worked on the doctrinal definition of Grace.

 

 

The Council in the Orthodox Church (not counted) -- 1351 A.D.

 

Worked again on the doctrinal definition of Grace.

 

 

The Council of Constance (#16) -- November 5th, 1414 A.D. to April 22nd, 1418 A.D.

 

Throughout the middle Ages, even Western, or Roman Catholics themselves, debated the convoking and authority of Councils.  Although all the bishops and theologians agreed that the pope should have special prerogatives, for several centuries, reformers claimed that when protesters had grievances, they could appeal from the pope to a Council.  Out of these reformist parties came a theory of Conciliarism, the idea that a Council is ultimately above the pope.  The Great Schism in 1378 A.D. brought this debate to a head, since there were then two, and then later, three popes.  The Council of Constance (1414-18 A.D.) settled the division.

 

 

The Council of Basel (#17a) -- July, 1431 A.D. to May 4th, 1437 A.D.

 

Established that the Council had higher authority than the pope, but conciliar power was again limited when the pope declared the Council of Basel heretical.

 

 

The Council of Ferrara-Florence (#17b) -- September 17th, 1437 A.D., to January, 1439 A.D.

 

Ferrara was held from January 1439 A.D., to April 25th, 1442 A.D.  Florence was held from April 25th, 1442 A.D., to 1445 A.D., in Rome.

 

The Council of Ferrara-Florence was convened for the primary purpose of ending the schism between the Ferrara-Florence church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

 

 

The Fifth Lateran Council (#18) -- May 3rd, 1512 A.D. to March 16th, 1517 A.D.

 

The Fifth Lateran Council was convoked for the purpose of reform, but the main causes of the Reformation were left untouched.  Its most significant decree was a condemnation of Conciliarism.

 

Note:  Conciliarism was a reform movement in the 14th-, 15th-, and 16th-Century Roman Catholic church, which held that supreme authority in the church resided with an Ecumenical council, apart from, or even against, the pope.  The movement emerged in response to the Western Schism between rival popes in Rome and Avignon.

 

 

D) THREE WESTERN ECUMENICAL COUNCILS HAVE BEEN HELD SINCE THE REFORMATION

 

 

The Council of Trent (#19) -- December 13th, 1545 A.D., to 1563 A.D.

 

The Council of Trent met over a period of 18 years to deal with the Protestant revolt.  It was decisively anti-Protestant in its decrees.  The Council of Trent saw the authority of the church partly in Scripture and partly in tradition, and its bishops rejected the teaching of Protestants that humans are justified only by Grace through faith.  Dogmatic decisions were passed regarding original sin and justification, the seven Sacraments, the Mass, and the cult of the saints.

 

When the formal Reformation began in 1517 A.D., with the nailing of Luther’s “95 Theses” to the church door, the Roman Catholic Church entered an intense period of confusion and reaction that culminated in the “Council of Trent.”  The “Council of Trent” was the carefully considered response to the Protestant threat.  Its aim was the destruction of heresy and the restoration of church discipline and order.

 

 

The First Vatical Council (#20) -- December 8th, 1869 A.D., to October 20th, 1870 A.D.

 

The First Vatican Council convened at Rome, in 1869-70 A.D., not only continued the attempts to define Roman Catholicism against the rest of Ecumenical Christendom, but decreed that -- in matters of faith and morals when he speaks officially and with clear intention to do so -- the pope is “infallible.”

 

 

The Second Vatican Council (#21) -- October 11th, 1962 A.D., to December 8th, 1965 A.D.

 

The Second Vatican Council (1962-65 A.D.), which also met in Rome, showed a different outlook.  First, it invited observers from Orthodox and Protestant Churches.  Second, the bishops did vote for a principle of collegiality, which gave higher status to their participation.  Collegiality however, did not effectively limit the supremacy of the pope (of course; else the Roman Catholic church goes down).

 

 

C) CATHOLIC TEACHINGS AND CREEDS (Still observed or not observed; depending on which form of Catholicism one belongs to)

 

 

In the “Synod of Toulouse,” in 1229 A. D., presided over by a papal legate, celebrated the close of the Albigensian crusades by perfecting the code of the Inquisition and forbidding lay Christians to possess copies of the Bible.  “Canon 14” reads:  “We prohibit also that the laity should be permitted to have the books of the Old or New Testament; unless anyone from motive of devotion should wish to have the Psalter [Psalms] or the Breviary for divine offices or the hours of the blessed Virgin; but we most strictly forbid their having any translation of these books.”  S. R. Maitland, “Facts and Documents,” 1832, pages 192-194.

 

At the “Council of Tarragona,” in 1234 A.D., the “Second Canon” rules that:  “No one may possess the books of the Old and New Testaments in the Romance language, and if anyone possesses them he must turn them over to the local bishop within eight days after the promulgation of this decree, so that they may be burned . . .”  D. Lortsch, “Historie de la Bible en France,” 1910, page 14.

 

In its fourth session, the “Council of Trent” (8 April 1546), reiterated the unmistakable Roman Catholic opposition to the distribution of the Scriptures by Bible Societies by decreeing:  ”It is manifest, from experience, that if the Holy Bible, translated into the vulgar tongue [common language], be indiscriminately allowed to everyone, the temerity of men will cause more evil than good to arise from it.”  Loraine Boettner, “Roman Catholicism,” 1962, page 97.

 

It is only since the “Second Vatican Council” (1962-1965 A.D.) that the Roman Catholic Church has encouraged its members to read annotated [altered] Roman Catholic bibles.